How the word for Sheep has changed

The origin and history of some of the European / Indo-European words for sheep

B ← A indicates that the word in language B has evolved directly
from a word in language A, or at least a very similar language. For
example, Persian did not evolve directly from Avestan, but the Old
Persian texts lack the more extensive vocabulary of the similar
Avestan language. Alternatively, the word could be borrowed
from another language. English is full of words borrowed from
Old French.

Abbreviations at bottom of page
* = hypothetical, reconstructed

GERMANIC
WEST GERMANIC

English

sheep ← M.Eng. schepe ← O.Eng. sceap ← Pr.W.Gmc. *skǣp ← Pr.Gmc. *skēpą ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Scots

sheep ← M.Sc. schepe ← O.Nth. scep ← Pr.W.Gmc. *skǣp ← Pr.Gmc. *skēpą ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Frisian
   North Frisian
      (Island)

Sjip ← O.Fris. skêp ← Pr.W.Gmc. *skǣp ← Pr.Gmc. *skēpą ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

   North Frisian
      (Mainland)

schäip ← O.Fris. skêp ← Pr.W.Gmc. *skǣp ← Pr.Gmc. *skēpą ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

   East Frisian

Schäip ← O.Fris. skêp ← Pr.W.Gmc. *skǣp ← Pr.Gmc. *skēpą ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

   West Frisian

skiep ← O.Fris. skêp ← Pr.W.Gmc. *skǣp ← Pr.Gmc. *skēpą ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Dutch

schaap ← M.Du. schaep, scaep ← O.Du. scâp ← Pr.W.Gmc. *skǣp ← Pr.Gmc. *skēpą ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Afrikaans

skaap ← Dutch schaap ← M.Du. schaep, scaep ← O.Du. scâp ← Pr.W.Gmc. *skǣp ← Pr.Gmc. *skēpą ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Plattdeutsch

Schaap ← M.L.G. schâp ← O.Sax. skâp ← Pr.W.Gmc. *skǣp ← Pr.Gmc. *skēpą ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

East Friesland Platt

Schaap ← M.L.G. schâp ← O.Sax. skâp ← Pr.W.Gmc. *skǣp ← Pr.Gmc. *skēpą ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Kölsch (Cologne)

Schof ← M.L.G. schâp ← O.Sax. skâp ← Pr.W.Gmc. *skǣp ← Pr.Gmc. *skēpą ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Luxemburgish

Schof ← M.H.G. schâf ← O.H.G. scâf ← Pr.W.Gmc. *skǣp ← Pr.Gmc. *skēpą ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Moselle Platt Lorraine

Schoof ← M.H.G. schâf ← O.H.G. scâf ← Pr.W.Gmc. *skǣp ← Pr.Gmc. *skēpą ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Rhine Platt Lorraine

Schoof ← M.H.G. schâf ← O.H.G. scâf ← Pr.W.Gmc. *skǣp ← Pr.Gmc. *skēpą ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

German

Schaf ← M.H.G. schâf ← O.H.G. scâf ← Pr.W.Gmc. *skǣp ← Pr.Gmc. *skēpą ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Yiddish

scheps ← M.H.G. schopz, schâf ← O.H.G. scâf ← Pr.W.Gmc. *skǣp ← Pr.Gmc. *skēpą ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Alsace German

Schof ← M.H.G. schâf ← O.H.G. scâf ← Pr.W.Gmc. *skǣp ← Pr.Gmc. *skēpą ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Swiss German

Schoof ← M.H.G. schâf ← O.H.G. scâf ← Pr.W.Gmc. *skǣp ← Pr.Gmc. *skēpą ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Swabian

Schaf ← M.H.G. schâf ← O.H.G. scâf ← Pr.W.Gmc. *skǣp ← Pr.Gmc. *skēpą ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Bavarian

Schof ← M.H.G. schâf ← O.H.G. scâf ← Pr.W.Gmc. *skǣp ← Pr.Gmc. *skēpą ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

NORTH GERMANIC

Icelandic

sauður ← O.N. sauðr ← Pr.Gmc. *sauþaz ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Faroese

seyður ← O.N. sauðr ← Pr.Gmc. *sauþaz ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Norwegian (Nynorsk)

sau ← O.N. sauðr ← Pr.Gmc. *sauþaz ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Norwegian

sau, får ← Rec.Dan. Faar ← O.Dan. far ← O.N. fær ← Pr.Gmc. *fahaz ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Danish

får ← Rec.Dan. Faar ← O.Dan. far ← O.N. fær ← Pr.Gmc. *fahaz ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Swedish

får ← O.Sw. far ← O.N. fær ← Pr.Gmc. *fahaz ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

EAST GERMANIC

Gothic (extinct)

lamb ← Pr.Gmc. *lambaz ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

CELTIC
GOIDELIC

Irish

caora ← Rec.Ir. caora ← O.Ir. cáera, ói ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Scottish Gaelic

caora ← O.Ir. cáera, ói ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Manx

keyrrey ← O.Ir. cáera, ói ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

BRITTONIC

Welsh

dafad ← E.Mod.W. davat ← M.W. davat ← Pr.Brit. *damat, *damatos ← Pr.Clt. *damato- ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Cornish

davas ← K.K. davas ← Uni.C. davas ← Lt.C. davaz ← M.C. davas ← O.C. davat ← Pr.Brit. *damat, *damatos ← Pr.Clt. *damato- ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Breton

dañvad ← Rec.Br. dañvad ← M.Br. davat ← Pr.Brit. *damat, *damatos ← Pr.Clt. *damato- ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

GAULISH

Gaulish (extinct)

*multon- ← Pr.Clt. *moltos

ROMANCE
WEST ROMANCE

Walloon

moton ← O.Fr. mouton ( ← Gaulish *multon-), oue ← Lat. ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Picard

berbi ← O.Fr. mouton, oue ← Lat. ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Guernsey French

berbis ← O.N.F. berbiz ← Lat. ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Jersey French

mouton ← O.N.F. berbiz ← Lat. ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Gallo

mouton ← O.Fr. mouton ( ← Gaulish *multon-), oue ← Lat. ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

French

mouton ← O.Fr. mouton ( ← Gaulish *multon-), oue ← Lat. ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Haitian Creole

mouton ← French mouton ← O.Fr. mouton ( ← Gaulish *multon-), oue ← Lat. ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Auvergnat

mouton ← O.Pr. molton ( ← Gaulish *multon-) ← Lat. ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Gascon

moton ← O.Pr. molton ( ← Gaulish *multon-) ← Lat. ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Aranese

oelha ← Lat. oviculam, ovicula; ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Aragonese

ovella ← Lat. oviculam, ovicula; ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Asturian

oveya ← Lat. oviculam, ovicula; ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Galician

ovella ← O.Gal./Port. ovella ← Lat. oviculam, ovicula; ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Portuguese

ovelha ← O.Gal./Port. ovella ← Lat. oviculam, ovicula; ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Spanish

oveja ← O.Sp. ovega ← Lat. oviculam, ovicula; ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Valencian

ovella ← O.Cat. oveylla ← Lat. oviculam, ovicula; ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Catalan

ovella ← O.Cat. oveylla ← Lat. oviculam, ovicula; ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Occitan

moton ← O.Pr. molton ( ← Gaulish *multon-) ← Lat. ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Provençal

móutoun ← O.Pr. molton ( ← Gaulish *multon-) ← Lat. ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Francoprovençal

feya ← Lat. fetam, feta; ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Romansch

nursa ← Lat. ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

    Sursilvan Romansch

nuorsa ← Lat. ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

    Sutsilvan Romansch

nursa ← Lat. ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

    Surmiran Romansch

nursa ← Lat. ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

    Upper Engadine Romansch

bês-ch ← Lat. ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

    Lower Engadine Romansch

besch ← Lat. ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Ladin

biescia ← Lat. ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Friulan

piore ← Lat. pecora; ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Monégasque

mutun ( ← Gaulish *multon-) ← Lat. ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Ligurian

pëgoa ← Lat. pecora; ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Piedmontese

fèja ← Lat. fetam, feta; ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Lombard

pégora ← Lat. pecora; ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Emilian

pîgra ← Lat. pecora; ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Venetian

piègora ← Lat. pecora; ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

ITALO-ROMANCE

Italian

pecora ← Lat. pecora; ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Corsican

pecura ← Lat. pecora; ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Neapolitan

pécura ← Lat. pecora; ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Sicilian

crastu ← Lat. ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

BALKAN ROMANCE

Romanian

oaie ← Lat. ovem, ovis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

SOUTHERN ROMANCE

Sardinian

   . . . .

GREEK

Greek

próvato ← Anc.Gk. ois, owis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

ANATOLIAN

Hittite (extinct)

*hawis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

ARMENIAN

Western Armenian

vočkhar ← O.Arm. oč‘xar

Eastern Armenian

vočkhar ← O.Arm. oč‘xar

ALBANIAN

Albanian

dele ← Pr.Alb. *dailjā ← Lt.I.E. *dhēl- ← Pr.I.E. d^heh₁l-

IRANIAN

Persian

gûsfand ← Av. anumaya-

Kurdish

pez ← Av. anumaya-

INDIC
NORTHERN INDIC

Nepali

bhēdā ← Pa. meṇḍa ← Skt. avi- ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

WESTERN INDIC

Marathi

meṅḍhī ← Pa. meṇḍa ← Skt. avi- ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

CENTRAL INDIC

Hindi

bheṛ ← Pa. meṇḍa ← Skt. avi- ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Urdu

bheṛ ← Pa. meṇḍa ← Skt. avi- ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

EASTERN INDIC

Bengali

bhēṛā ← Pa. meṇḍa ← Skt. avi- ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

SOUTHERN INDIC

Sinhalese

baṭaḷuwan ← Pa. meṇḍa ← Skt. avi- ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

SLAVIC
WEST SLAVIC

Kashubian

òwca ← O.C.S. ovĭca ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Polish

owca ← O.C.S. ovĭca ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Lower Sorbian

wójca ← O.C.S. ovĭca ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Upper Sorbian

wowca ← O.C.S. ovĭca ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Czech

ovce ← O.C.S. ovĭca ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Slovak

ovca ← O.C.S. ovĭca ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

SOUTH SLAVIC

Slovene

ovca ← O.C.S. ovĭca ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Croatian

ovca ← O.C.S. ovĭca ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Bosnian

ovca ← O.C.S. ovĭca ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Serbian

ovca ← O.C.S. ovĭca ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Macedonian

ovca ← O.C.S. ovĭca ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Bulgarian

ovca ← O.C.S. ovĭca ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

EAST SLAVIC

Russian

avca ← O.C.S. ovĭca ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Belarusian

avječka ← O.C.S. ovĭca ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Ukrainian

vivcja ← O.C.S. ovĭca ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

BALTIC

Lithuanian

avis ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

Latvian

aita, avs ← Lt.I.E. *owis ← Pr.I.E. *h₃ewis

FINNO-UGRIAN

Estonian

lammas ← Pr.Fi. *lambas ( ← Pr.Gmc. *lambaz)

Finnish

lammas ← Pr.Fi. *lambas ( ← Pr.Gmc. *lambaz)

Sami

sávza

Erzya

reve

Komi (Zyrian)

mež

Mansi (Vogul)

   . . . .

Hungarian

juh

BASQUE

Basque

ardi

SEMITIC

Arabic

ḥarûf

Hebrew

tson ← O.T.H. ṣōn

Aramaic

‘erwa ← N.T.A. neqyā’

Babylonian (extinct)

aslu

TURKIC

Turkish

koyun

Azerbaijani

qoyun

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Meaning of Life
Bits

I’d like to share with you why I think Christianity is such a great religion. A person who lives to 70 has a life of 613,200 hours. Christianity promises that the next life will be in ideal surroundings with friendly, happy people. There will be perfect health and no crime. Of course you’re free to reject the offer of eternal life.

Isn’t it worth, though, spending at least part of one of your 613,200 hours just checking it out. Then if you reject it, at least you’ll have made an informed decision. Is it just possible that your world view could be wrong and Christianity might actually be true? Where would that leave you if you choose to turn down the offer of heaven?

Why Does God Let Bad Things Happen To Good People?
Your Race, Gender And Sexuality Are Irrelevant To God - True or False?
Near Death Experiences
Objections To Christianity
Some Parables and Sayings of Jesus
God Is Uncaring - True or False?
Pain and Injustice In The World
It’s Ok to Blame God For Floods and Famines - True or False?
My Favourite Bible Quotations
The Universe Was Created In Six Days - True or False?
What Makes Christianity Unique Among Religions?
Did God Betray My Trust?
God Allows So Much Suffering In The World - True or False?
The Easy Way To Pray
Who Jesus Is
The Appeal Of Being A Christian
What Faith Is
Does the God of Love Really Send People to Hell?
Did Adam and Eve Really Exist?

Quotations

These are some of my wife's thoughts and ideas:

Believe and Receive
Be Thankful
Change of Heart
Defining Hope
Endless Joy
Fork in the Road
God is not Deaf
Hurting World
Into the Light
Just say Yes
New Life
Put Him First
Ready for Anything
Salvation
Sheep and Lambs
The Best Gift
The Centre
The Gospels
The Reality of Jesus

What's Missing?

Jesus said, referring to how He will judge people on Judgment Day, "Then the King will say to those who are at his right, 'Come, blessed ones of my Father, inherit the Kingdom that was prepared for you from the foundation of the universe. For I was hungry and you gave me food and I was thirsty and you gave me drink. I was a stranger and you took me in. I was naked and you clothed me. I was sick and you took care of me. I was in prison and you came to me.'

Then the righteous will say to him, 'Lord, when did we see you hungry and feed you, or thirsty and give you drink? And when did we see you a stranger and welcome you, or naked and clothe you? When did we ever see you sick, or in prison and visit you?�

The King will say, 'Truly I tell you, whatever you did for one of the least of these brothers and sisters of mine, you did for me.'"

Matthew 25,34-40

ABBREVIATIONS

Anc.Gk. = Ancient Greek (700 B.C. - 450 A.D.)
Av. = Avestan (600 B.C. - 400 B.C.)
E.Mod.W. = Early Modern Welsh (1450 - 1600)
K.K. = Kernewek Kemmyn - "Common Cornish" (1986 - 2008)
Lat. = Latin (75 B.C. - 250 A.D.)
Lt.C. = Late Cornish (1600 - 1891)
Lt.I.E. = Late Indo-European (2,500 B.C. - 2,000 B.C.)
M.Br. = Middle Breton (1100 - 1650)
M.C. = Middle Cornish (1200 - 1600)
M.Du. = Middle Dutch (1150 - 1500)
M.Eng. = Middle English (1150 - 1450)
M.H.G. = Middle High German (1050 - 1350)
M.L.G. = Middle Low German (1200 - 1600)
M.Sc. = Middle Scots (1450 - 1700)
M.W. = Middle Welsh (1200 - 1450)
N.T.A. = New Testament Aramaic (1st century A.D.)
O.Alb. = Old Albanian (1284 - 1908)
O.Arm. = Old Armenian (450 - 1050)
O.Br. = Old Breton (800 - 1100)
O.C. = Old Cornish (850- 1200)
O.C.S. = Old Church Slavonic (850 - 1050)
O.Cat. = Old Catalan (850 - 1550)
O.Dan. = Old Danish (1100 - 1536)
O.Du. = Old Dutch (450 - 1150)
O.Eng. = Old English (650 - 1150)
O.Fr. = Old French (750 - 1350)
O.Fris. = Old Frisian (750 - 1500)
O.Gal./Port. = Old Galician / Old Portuguese (775 - 1050)
O.H.G. = Old High German (400 - 1050)
O.Ir. = Old Irish (550 - 950)
O.It. = Old Italian (1150 - 1350)
O.N. = Old Norse (750 - 1350)
O.N.F. = Old Norman French (1000 - 1450)
O.Nth. = Old Northumbrian (650 - 1000)
O.Pol. = Old Polish (950 - 1550)
O.Pr. = Old Provençal (900 - 1400)
O.Sax. = Old Saxon (750 - 1150)
O.Sp. = Old Spanish (950 - 1400)
O.Sw. = Old Swedish (1225 - 1526)
O.T.H. = Old Testament Hebrew (1200 B.C. - 200 A.D.)
O.W. = Old Welsh (800 - 1200)
Pa. = Pali (50 B.C. - 400 A.D.)
Pr.Alb. = Proto-Albanian
Pr.Arm. = Proto-Armenian (c.1200 B.C.)
Pr.Brit. = Proto-Brittonic (500 B.C. - 550 A.D.)
Pr.Clt. = Proto-Celtic (1300 B.C. - 800 B.C.)
Pr.Fi. = Proto-Finnic (1200 B.C. - 800 A.D.)
Pr.Gmc. = Proto-Germanic (500 B.C. - 150 A.D.)
Pr.I.E. = Proto-Indo-European (4,500 B.C. - 2,500 B.C.)
Pr.It. = Proto-Italic (1,700 B.C. - 700 B.C.)
Pr.Sem. = Proto-Semitic (3,500 B.C.)
Pr.Ug. = Proto-Ugric (2000 B.C. - 1000 B.C.)
Pr.Ur. = Proto-Uralic (pre-2000 B.C.)
Pr.W.Gmc. = Proto-West Germanic (150 A.D. - 400 A.D.)
Rec.Br. = Recent Breton (pre-1941)
Rec.Dan. = Recent Danish (pre-1948)
Rec.Ir. = Recent Irish (pre-1947)
Skt. = Sanskrit (1,500 B.C. - 500 B.C.)
Uni.C. = Unified Cornish (1929 - 2008)
V.Lat. = Vulgar Latin (50 B.C. - 650 A.D.)

* = hypothetical, reconstructed

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